Keywords
Mango wood shavings
Microbial Count
Milkfish processing techniques
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
Santol wood shavings
Abstract
Smoked fish is a staple in many traditional dishes, yet awareness of its potential health risks, particularly concerning polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and microbial contamination, remains limited, particularly in rural communities of Capiz, Philippines. To date, there is insufficient information on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) levels associated with different types of wood used in smoking. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of three smoking materials—coconut (Cocos nucifera) shell (CCS), mango (Mangifera indica) wood shavings (MWS), and santol (Sandoricum koetjape) wood shavings (SWS)—on the sensory attributes, PAH levels, and microbial load of smoked milkfish (Chanos chanos). Eighteen fish samples were smoked per treatment, with nine randomly selected for PAH and microbial analyses. Results showed that PAH levels in all samples were below the detection limit (<10 µg/kg), confirming compliance with food safety standards. Microbial analysis revealed significantly lower counts in CCS-smoked fish (370 CFU/g) compared to MWS and SWS smoked samples, which exceeded 6,500 CFU/g but remained well below the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) maximum allowable limit of 5 × 10⁵ CFU/g. Sensory evaluation indicated a strong preference for MWS-smoked fish due to its aroma, taste, and mouthfeel. These findings highlight the potential of CCS for reducing microbial contamination, while MWS enhances sensory attributes, making it suitable for premium smoked fish products. This study provides insights into optimizing smoking processes to ensure food safety and improve consumer acceptability of smoked milkfish.
References
Abel, N., Rotabakk, B. T., & Lerfall, J. (2022). Mild processing of seafood—A review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 21(1), 340-370.
Abolagba, O., & Nuntah, J. (2011). Survey on cured fish processing, packaging, distribution, and marketing in Edo and Delta states. International Research Journal of Biotechnology, 2(5), 103–113.
Afe, O. H. I., Saegerman, C., Kpoclou, Y. E., Douny, C., Igout, A., Mahillon, J., ... & Scippo, M. L. (2021). Contamination of smoked fish and smoked-dried fish with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and biogenic amines and risk assessment for the Beninese consumers. Food Control, 126, 108089.
Aksun Tümerkan, E. T. (2022). Investigations of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and elemental profile of smoked fish. Molecules, 27(20), 7015.
Albishi, T., Banoub, J. H., de Camargo, A. C., & Shahidi, F. (2019). Date palm wood as a new source of phenolic antioxidants and in preparation of smoked salmon. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 43(3), e12760.
Ali, A., Wei, S., Ali, A., Khan, I., Sun, Q., Xia, Q., Wang, Z., Han, Z., Liu, Y., & Liu, S. (2022). Research Progress on Nutritional Value, Preservation and Processing of Fish—A Review. Foods, 11(22), 1–25.
Asamoah, E. K., Nunoo, F. K. E., Addo, S., Nyarko, J. O., & Hyldig, G. (2021). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in fish smoked using traditional and improved kilns: Levels and human health risk implications through dietary exposure in Ghana. Food Control, 121, 107576.
Assogba, M. F., Ahouansou, R. H., Djohi, N. O. R., Kpoclou, Y. E., Anihouvi, G. D., Afé, H. O. I., ... & Anihouvi, V. B. (2024). Development of innovative technology reducing the levels of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in grilled meat and smoked fish. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 125, 105773.
Assogba, M. F., Afé, O. H. I., Ahouansou, R. H., Anihouvi, D. G. H., Kpoclou, Y. E., Djago, D., ... & Anihouvi, V. B. (2022). Performances of the barrel kiln used in cottage industry for fish processing and effects on physicochemical characteristics and safety of smoked fish products. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 102(2), 851-861.
Barros, D., Nova, P., Cunha, S., Monteiro, V., Fernandes, É., Pereira-Pinto, R., ... & Vaz-Velho, M. (2023). Enhancing storage stability of smoke-flavored horse mackerel filets using natural extracts as preservatives. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 7, 1296265.
Catena, S., Sanllorente, S., Sarabia, L. A., Boggia, R., Turrini, F., & Ortiz, M. C. (2020). Unequivocal identification and quantification of PAHs content in ternary synthetic mixtures and in smoked tuna by means of excitation-emission fluorescence spectroscopy coupled with PARAFAC. Microchemical Journal, 154, 104561.
Chen, D., Cen, K., Zhuang, X., Gan, Z., Zhou, J., Zhang, Y., & Zhang, H. (2022). Insight into biomass pyrolysis mechanism based on cellulose , hemicellulose , and lignin : Evolution of volatiles and kinetics , elucidation of reaction pathways , and characterization of gas , biochar and bio-oil. Combustion and Flame, 242.
Çiftçi, N., & Ayas, D. (2021). A Mini-Review on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Some Smoked Fish. Acta Natura et Scientia, 2(2), 124–129.
De Kock, H. L., & Magano, N. N. (2020). Sensory tools for the development of gluten-free bakery foods. Journal of Cereal Science, 94, 102990.
Ekonomou, S. I., Bulut, S., Karatzas, K. A. G., & Boziaris, I. S. (2020). Inactivation of Listeria monocytogenes in raw and hot smoked trout fillets by high hydrostatic pressure processing combined with liquid smoke and freezing. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 64, 102427.
Elazzazy, A. M., & Abdallah, W. E. (2023). Assessment of Bacterial Population and Enterotoxins Profile of Smoked Fish. Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Biology & Fisheries, 27(6).
El-Gendy, N. M., Amer, A., Ibrahim, H. A., & Abou-Okada, M. (2024). Microbiological quality assessment of Clarias gariepinus, Bagrus bajad, and Pangasianodon hypophthalmus fillets. Scientific reports, 14(1), 13305.
Feng, H., Timira, V., Zhao, J., Lin, H., Wang, H., & Li, Z. (2022). Insight into the characterization of volatile compounds in smoke-flavored sea bass (Lateolabrax maculatus) during processing via HS-SPME-GC-MS and HS-GC-IMS. Foods, 11(17), 2614.
Food and Drug Administration. (2022). Guidelines on the microbiological requriements and assessment of certain prepackaged processed food products repealing FDA circular No. 2013-010 entitled "Revised Guidelines for the Assessment of Microbiological Quality of Processed Foods (pp. 1–6).
Gere, A., Sipos, L., & Héberger, K. (2015). Generalized Pairwise Correlation and method comparison: Impact assessment for JAR attributes on overall liking. Food quality and preference, 43, 88-96.
Hamidi, E. N., Hajeb, P., Selamat, J., & Razis, A. F. A. (2016). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their bioaccessibility in meat: A tool for assessing human cancer risk. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 17(1), 15–23.
Hasibuan, R., Limbong, Y. W., Fazillah, R., & Pramananda, V. (2024). Effect of Pyrolysis Temperature and Time on Liquid Smoke Yield in Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Shells Pyrolysis Process. In E3S Web of Conferences (Vol. 560, p. 01008). EDP Sciences.
Hasselberg, A. E., Wessels, L., Aakre, I., Reich, F., Atter, A., Steiner-Asiedu, M., ... & Kjellevold, M. (2020). Composition of nutrients, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and microbiological quality in processed small indigenous fish species from Ghana: Implications for food security. PLoS One, 15(11), e0242086.
Joseph, A. O., Adu, A. A., Babalola, O. O., Kusemiju, V., & Mekuleyi, G. O. (2021). The Effects of Three Traditional Smoking Methods on the Concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHS) in Smoked Fishes. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology, December, 22–30.
Kafeelah, A. Y., Lucy, N. E., Kafayat, A. F., Shehu, L. A., Julius, I. A., & Titus, O. O. (2015). Influence of fish smoking methods on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons content and possible risks to human health. African Journal of Food Science, 9(3), 126–135.
Leksono, T., & Ikhsan, M. N. (2020). The effect of different variety of fire-woods on smoking of selais catfish (Cryptopterus bicirchis). In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 430, No. 1, p. 012002). IOP Publishing.
Lim, J., & Fujimaru, T. (2010). Evaluation of the labeled hedonic scale under different experimental conditions. Food quality and preference, 21(5), 521-530.
Malaka, R., Purwanti, S., Ali, H. M., & Aulyani, T. L. (2021, June). Liquid smoke characteristic from coconut shell and rice husk. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 788, No. 1, p. 012078). IOP Publishing.
Matamba, T., Tahmasebi, A., Rish, S. K., & Yu, J. (2021). Understanding the enhanced production of poly-aromatic hydrocarbons during the pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass components under pressurized entrained-flow conditions. Fuel Processing Technology, 213, 106645.
Mičulis, J., Valdovska, A., Šterna, V., & Zutis, J. (2011). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked fish and meat. Agronomy Research, 9(SPPL. ISS. 2), 439–442.
Nicolas, L., Marquilly, C., & O’Mahony, M. (2010). The 9-point hedonic scale: Are words and numbers compatible?. Food quality and preference, 21(8), 1008-1015.
Nizio, E., Czwartkowski, K., & Niedbała, G. (2023). Impact of smoking technology on the quality of food products: Absorption of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) by food products during smoking. Sustainability, 15(24), 16890.
Paries, M., Bougeard, S., & Vigneau, E. (2022). Multivariate analysis of Just-About-Right data with optimal scaling approach. Food Quality and Preference, 102, 104681.
Philippine Statistics Authority (2025). Fisheries Situation Report for Major Species, April to June 2025.
Racovita, R. C., Secuianu, C., & Israel-Roming, F. (2021). Quantification and risk assessment of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in retail smoked fish and smoked cheeses. Food Control, 121, 107586.
Saelens, G., & Houf, K. (2022). Systematic review and critical reflection on the isolation and identification methods for spoilage associated bacteria in fresh marine fish. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 203, 106599.
Sampaio, G. R., Guizellini, G. M., da Silva, S. A., de Almeida, A. P., Pinaffi-Langley, A. C. C., Rogero, M. M., de Camargo, A. C., & Torres, E. A. F. S. (2021). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in foods: Biological effects, legislation, occurrence, analytical methods, and strategies to reduce their formation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(11).
Savin, R.-L., Ladoși, D., Ladoși, I., Păpuc, T., Becze, A., Cadar, O., Torök, I., Simedru, D., Mariș, Ș. C., & Coroian, A. (2024). Influence of Fish Species and Wood Type on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Contamination in Smoked Fish Meat. Foods, 13(12), 1790.
Speranza, B., Racioppo, A., Bevilacqua, A., Buzzo, V., Marigliano, P., Mocerino, E., Scognamiglio, R., Corbo, M. R., Scognamiglio, G., & Sinigaglia, M. (2021). Innovative preservation methods improving the quality and safety of fish products: Beneficial effects and limits. Foods, 10(11), 1–26.
Stone, H. (2018). Example food: What are its sensory properties and why is that important?. npj Science of Food, 2(1), 11.
Swastawati, F., Susanto, E., Cahyono, B., & Trilaksono, W. A. (2012). Sensory Evaluation and Chemical Characteristics of Smoked Stingray (Dasyatis Blekeery) Processed by Using Two Different Liquid Smoke. International Journal of Bioscience, Biochemistry and Bioinformatics, November 2016, 212–216.
Whenu, O. O., Akintola, S. L., & Ajibade, M. A. (2022). Mapping of fuel wood types used in smoking fish in relation to occurrence of PAHS in smoked fish in Nigeria. African Journal of Agriculture and Food Science, 5(2), 24-31.
Wichchukit, S., & O'Mahony, M. (2015). The 9‐point hedonic scale and hedonic ranking in food science: some reappraisals and alternatives. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 95(11), 2167-2178.